Theories of Development Essay Example for Free

Theories of Development Essay Jean Piaget (1896 – 1980) Piaget focuses on cognitive development; he was all about the child centred approach, he believed children are active learners and make sense of the world through their own experiences. Piaget believed that a child develops through a series of pre-determined stages to adulthood and said that a child needs to be at a specific stage of development to learn new concepts. His theory is concerned with the children rather than all learners and it focuses more on the development and not so much the learning which means this theory doesn’t really co-inside with learning of information and specific behaviours. Piaget influences current practise because the EYFS states that we need to have a balance of child initiated activities and children can be independent learners. We also have free flow within the setting which will highlight the child centred approach that Piaget believed in. He has also influenced the approach to managing children’s behaviour through looking at a child’s moral development through their point of view rather than an adult. Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939) Freud focuses on the psychoanalytical theory; he was particularly interested in the development of characteristics and personality. Freud believed we have an unconscious mind that is split into three parts and this this makes up our personality; the id, ego and superego. The id is where all our desires and needs come from and can be known as the selfish and passionate component of our personality e.g. a baby will cry and cry to be fed, not thinking of how tired their parent/carer may be. The ego is where we start to consider consequences of our actions and is known as the common sense part of our personalities e.g. if a child wants something but knows they have to ask nicely or wait patiently they will do so in order to meet their needs or desires. The superego is where we start to think about the moral requirements, if you have misbehaved your conscience will affect your ego and make you feel guilty, if you are being rewarded for something good, your ego-ideal will reward your ego with pride and confidence. Freud believed that with age these stages will develop in your personality. Freud influences current practise because we now think about the child’s wants and needs from their point of view. We wouldn’t take away a small child’s comforter because their id has made them believe they want it and need it, they would become very distressed if we did so. Abraham Maslow (1908 – 1970) Maslow had a humanist approach to his theory, his theory was about motivation and personality, he believed in a hierarchy of needs and these needs needed to met in order fulfil their potential or ‘self-actualisation’. He believed you would have to reach all previous levels of the pyramid to become a fulfilled person. Maslow believed motivation and personality are linked to our basic needs being met. He also believed that every person has the potential to become self-actualized however some factors can hinder progress i.e. a family’s income being affected through the parent losing their job would affect a few of the hierarchy points. Maslow influences current practise within the early years setting because the professionals need to think about the environment that is being created for the children as well as developing strong relationships. We need to try and meet the basic needs such as warmth, food, shelter and to form a good relationship we need to provide love, care and promote self-esteem. Albert Bandura (born 1925) Bandura has a social learning approach to his theory and this is another behaviourist approach. Bandura believes in conditioning through positive and negative reinforcement, and through observing people around you (observational learning). He believes that if one observes another person they will pick up and learn how to act in certain situations through modelling another person’s behaviour. Bandura’s behaviourist approach shows he does believe that not all observed actions will lead to a change in behaviour, if a child observes someone they may just take in the information rather than modelling what they have observed. Bandura influences current practise because we praise positive behaviour in order for children to do it again and ignore negative behaviour in hoping the children wouldn’t repeat it. We also act as good role models for the children to observe and copy our behaviour i.e. being polite with please and thank you, sharing and being kind to our friends. B. F Skinner (1904 – 1990) Skinner is known for developing the behaviourist approach but he also has the operant conditioning approach to his theory. He believed we would shape behaviour; we would promote desired behaviour with rewards such as stickers, praise, attention and treats, and positive reinforcement would help aid in learning. He also believed in reinforcing undesired behaviour with punishment in hoping this would stop children from repeating this behaviour. He also believes the rewards and reinforcement should be done in good time after the behaviour has occurred or it would not have the desired effect i.e. straight away, if delayed it may not register to the child what behaviour caused for this. The rewards and reinforcement shouldn’t be expected all the time so frequency needs to be considered, its best to not reward or reinforce every time, this would mean they wouldn’t expect it all the time and would constantly show wanted behaviour because unexpectedly they would receive a reward and would want this again. Skinner influences current practise because we have behaviour policies that families have to comply with. We also praise good behaviour and when a child achieves something we reward with stickers. We try to avoid undesired behaviour happening again by using punishments such as time out. John B. Watson (1878 – 1958) Watson was a behaviourist theorist; his theory is that classical conditioning offers a basic explanation of how a child can develop through learning by association, e.g. when the fire bell goes off, children will associate it with lining up. Some of his work was based on showing phobia’s and association, e.g. some children have a fear of needles because they associate this with the pain they felt before. Watson influences current practise because we now have routines and have set areas for certain activities, e.g. when we are sat at the red table this will be for arts and design. Social Pedagogy Social pedagogy is about the holistic wellbeing and education, it is a shared responsibility between parents and society as a whole. It develops children and young people’s knowledge of what is expected of them as an individual in society. It helps them gain skills in learning, coping with emotions and physical skills; it’s there to teach children and young people how to become a valued member of society. Social pedagogy has a hands on approach to the younger generation and believes that it is not just up to the parents to do all the upbringing but it is the society too. Social pedagogy influences current practise because the Eyfs states that we should work in partnership with the parents, we also have government run settings such as sure start and these other help to families who haven’t had the best start in life. All of the theorists have different approaches and views but all give something to the current practise that we work alongside with.

Software Development Theory: A Survey

Software Development Theory: A Survey Pushpakumar R Abstract— Nowadays, during the Software development process, software developers are involved and their efforts to generate correct approach are the major challenge. In this survey, the planned model is Coat Hanger, for theorizing about development practices. This model focuses on the projected justification for the actual recognition and resulting effects of using particular practices in changing contexts. In the recent practice concerned with articles in the journal Science of Computer Programming explains the use of this model. The software development in professional organizations with actual software consultants as moles. The Coat Hanger model was then used to order the notional assets and weakness of these four practice descriptions. The study is used as the basis to declare the likely of our model as an intangible aid for more structured imagining about software development practices. The goat hanger model expected to deliver and then serve for software development process theory. In th is novel approach the model is also provide a catalog for theory and then development process. Index Terms— Goat hanger, Catalog, Software theory Introduction In this paper we explained Modern software development theory and development. The general software process based on the general theory of software engineering. Particularly, they call for models which should provide analytical and narrow support for software engineering, instead of running costly design procedures that are plainly based on trial and error. They remark the issue of choosing software development methods in development projects and organizations as an example of weighty questions, which should be undertaken by such theory. Principally, Johnson at all. state that â€Å"many planned methods, programming languages and requirements specification languages exist, but very few bare theories explain why or foresee that one method or language would be preferable to another under certain situations†. While it may be true that we lack a â€Å"general theory† of software engineering, we must be more correct in our argumentation, however. What is this lack that we ar e talking about? Are we wanting theories about software artifacts or are we missing theoretical knowledge on the work of software professionals, i.e. software development. Additional approach has been the building of ontologies that give researchers and method-oriented consultants a vocabulary for theoretical constructs. An example of this approach is the semat kernel, which provides a set of concepts, or ontology, for the core of software engineering. In its place of creating theories based on scientific remark, SEMAT has chosen the correction path, where the result is based on agreement, earlier experiences, or a best guess among a body of professionals. Another example is the complete SWEBOK, which is an attempt to protection all relevant areas of software engineering with commonly agreed knowledge. SWEBOK is not, however, focused on a single theory of the whole process; it labels areas defined by agreement or convention instead and therefore cannot be considered as a scientific theory. While mathematics and computer science offer a solid academic basis for kind computational changes and the article the process and performs of structure the artifact. Software development is less enclosed by scientific research. In our work we focus on the problem of theorizing about software growth practices, whic h can create data to support research, education and actual development of practices in software development officialdoms. To build and expressly validate theories about software expansion practices, we want to observe the work of software professionals in the real world context. This means that we must identify software development as a structural action, where the context, the business and then environment and the human organization with its fights and other failures are at least as applicable for the success of software development as the computational changes of the software piece. In this view the observed software development work becomes the source of the theory, and the target of the theory is to know, explain and guess the reason and practices of software developers and the effect these have on the success of software development. The unbiased of this paper is to understand this theorizing process abstractly and to build a model that explains the essential concepts for theo ries of software development practices. Practices and software development The practice of software development, which is â€Å"concerned with creating images of the purposes of the software and its problem domain, of its assembly and performance, of the additions to be achieved, of the boundaries between the software and its environment and its users. Software development contains numerous practices including that of analysis, design, execution and quality management. This kind of organic view to practices implies that in the software development context, practices may include both carefully organized use of predefined development methods and loosely prepared and even emergent activities that may use discrete tools or techniques at hand. They are not a mechanical reply to rules, norms or models, but a tactical, yet regulated improvisation responding to the dialectical connection between a exact situation in a field and habitus. Technical rationality The field of software engineering has over eras twisted numerous methods that are normative models of how software development should take place. However, already in the 1980s, noted that a methodology does not really describe what actually occurs in practice. The real actions in software progress, the working practice in use, what is really done in a situation may be quite different from what is described by a narrow methodology. In the field of information systems development, Larsen et al. describe how a research stream has discussed the related nature of method/practice engineering and acceptance by individual system and software designers, projects, and growth organizations since the 1990s. Recently, this portent has gained increasing attention in the international software engineering community as well. Practice research in organizations We adopt that a software development practice may become an administrative practice, it can be defined as the organization’s routine use of knowledge. Organizational applies can exist at the multiple levels, in that as in a software progress project or in an organization taking part in several projects or development processes. Structural practices often have tacit workings embedded partly in separate skills and partly in collaborative social arrangements. Many vital features of software development practices, such as their starting and evolution, require more courtesy from research and theory to be fully unspoken. The general management literature, however, conjectures with many viewpoints on how structural practices take shape. All existing images of a practice imply that at least one stakeholder in the society has intended that it should be enacted. However the ethnographical studies have shown that such official, prescribed practices often deviate from the actual actions taken Moreover, software development organizations may also follow undocumented, habitual practices. Pent land and Feldman highlight a distinction between the performativity and ostensive aspects of organizational practices. The performativity facet shows â€Å"the specific actions taken by specific people at specific times when they are engaged in what they think of as an organizational routine. service engagements are becoming increasingly more numerous and more complex. We consider service engagements in the broad sense. Fig.1.CoatHanger model for building theories from development practices. Coat Hanger model for resulting theorizing about practices We have shaped a model for a special resolve, for imagining about software expansion practices. We also recognize that there are general principles and models for experimental research and testing in software engineering. These sources define how observed research in software engineering should be conducted and reported, whereas we need to concentrate on theorizing only. Our purpose is not to switch these but to provide a planned way to investigate and create theories about software development practices or sets of practices with a echo in action mode to research and practice. Our model figures on six main concepts that need to be illustrious in order to learn from software development practice and to shape theories of development practices: knowledge, a repetition, development setting, basis, effect, and theory. We use dual naming for each concept, for example rationale excusing and impact gauging. A central concept in our model is the concept of a practice. One dictionary definition of a practice is rather people do often. In the context of a development project or an body, a systems development practice may become an structural exercise or routine, which can be defined as the organization’s routine use of knowledge, especially â€Å"know-how†. The concept of â€Å"best practices† illustrates an assumption that abstractions of such know how can be usefully analyzed, and lessons learned from practice can be transferred between organizational contexts and over time. However, organizational practices often have tacit components embedded partly in individual skills and partly in collaborative social arrangements. If we compare a development method and a practice, a method adopted in an organization always embodies a predefined practice or a set of practices, whereas a practice is not always defined at the detailed level, at least with regard to all potential elements of method knowledge. However, while being cautious on the concept of â€Å"best practices†, we share the belief that practice descriptions and definitions may appear as useful for analyzing recurrent development actions in context, as a basis of learning from them. A software growth effort takes place in a development context, which includes a large number of issues and factors. For example, Clarke and O’Connor identified 140 situated factors from previous literature that may affect the software development process. Similarly, in the field of information systems development, Orlikowski claims that the role of the system, systems development structure and operations, development policies and practices, development staff, corporate strategies, organizational structure and culture, customers, competitors, and available technologies represent contextual categories of issues which may influence the success or suitability of development practices. Discuss the concept of method rationale as an important part of evolutionary method engineering to support software and systems development. While they regard good understanding of the method rationale as necessary for continuing the â€Å"variation and augmentation† of an organization’s methods, we will widen the concept of rationale to be equally useful for understanding the reasons for an organization’s development practices in general. A rationale for a development practice thus provides justifications for the creation, use and alteration of the practice (or a set of practices). Lyytinen and Robey emphasize the significance of learning from the organization’s own growth experience. This clearly requires analysis and identification of the impacts of the expansion practices to software engineering success. Such impacts may be wanted already according to the explicit method foundation or they may be unanticipated, sometimes even unwanted. Finally, the above concepts are needed for making and assessing theories of development practices. That is, we pursue theories which can examine, describe, and explain background software development practices, finally aiming at a level of prediction. We believe that it is useful to evaluate the practice and aim at predictive theories of certain types of development practices, with regard to their impacts on the development products, projects and processes, and contexts. In the following, we relate these concepts to each other to form a model to guide the research on development practices. Fig.1relates these concepts together, whereas their relationships, which we need to understand in order to build theory from practices, are discussed further below. Education is a border spanning machine which needs to exist, on one hand, in a development context so that earlier theories, including previous, more or less well-grounded, organizational commendations of development can notify local rationale for new practices and that the observed impacts of the target organization’s previous practices can inform further local rationality to adjust the practices. On the other hand, learning is needed between development organizations and the theory builders, who observe development actions in practice and try to abstract lessons to be learned from the particular practices in question (Fig.1). The process of theorizing is circular by nature. The local and global theories of observes will affect the rationalizing of practices and practice change in the development context. This in turn will lead to new knowledge that will make new or extended local or global theories. The development context involves all the issues which have impact on how practices in the target organization or project are socially constructed and how the development organization can learn from its practices. The context may have an impact on the basis to tool new practices and how the applied practices are twisted during real development activities, on the impacts reached from the practices in use, and even whether a learning process takes place in a context at all and whether lessons learned from previous experience are made explicit. That is, practices, their impacts, and learning may not be purely based on the identified rationale alone, but can be affected by contextual issues. If contextual issues are explicitly identified before implementing a new set of practices, they may, in turn, become an explicitly recognized part of the rationale. However, some contextual issues may have a more implicit effect on practices in use and their impacts, recognized only after new practice s have been tried out. Learning is the intermediary that enables accumulation of local and global theories and their utilization in the development context. Conclusion In this topic we have discussed the need in software engineering research to observe the work of software professionals in real environments and presented a model that includes essential concepts for the theorizing of software development practices. The Coat Hanger model and then concepts education, a training growth context, motivation, impact, and theory can be used as a tool by research planners and assessors. To illustrate the value of the model we also made a survey of articles in Science of Computer Programming and went through four full years of articles. Out of 371 articles, we found only four articles that studied and observed directly professional software development using physicians as informants. Our study in light of the model could disclose areas of perfection with regard to the theoretical and empirical parts of the four studies. Finally we sharp out that software engineering research tends to value technical rationality instead of reflection in action and emphasized that theorizing of software development practices requires new approaches that recognize also other reference sciences than computer science and mathematics and pays more care to scientific practice. In the future we aim to continue our theory structure on software expansion practices. When combined with our previous model on practice changes, the Coat Hanger model is expected to serve as a conceptually clear and useful instrument for such theorizing. One other for current the study could be to build a catalogue of well-known or otherwise interesting software change practices, their motivations, and impacts on known contexts. References [1]S. Adolph, P. Kruchten, W. Hall, â€Å"Reconciling perspectives: a grounded theory of how people manage the process of software development†, J. Syst. Softw. 85(6) (2012) 1269–1286. [2]Chris Argyris, D.A. Schà ¶n, Organizational Learning II, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1996. [3]T.B.C. Arias, P. Avgeriou, P. America, K. Blom, S. Bachynskyy, A top–down strategy to reverse architecting execution views for a large and complex software-intensive system: an experience report, Sci. Comput. Program. 76(12) (2011) 1098–1112. [4]M. Bajec, D. Vavpotiˆ¡c, M. Krisper, Practice-driven approach for creating project-specific software development methods, Inf. Softw. Technol. 49(4) (2007) 345–365. [5]V. Basili, R. Tesoriero, P. Costa, M. Lindvall, I. Rus, F. Shull, et al., Building an experience base for software engineering: a report on the first Ce-BASE eWorkshop, in: F. Bomarius, S. Komi-Sirvià ¶ (Eds.), Product Focused Software Process Improvement, in: Lect. Notes Comput. Sci., Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2001, pp.110–125. [6]I. Benbasat, R.W. Zmud, Empirical research in information systems: the practice of relevance, MIS Q. 23(1) (1999) 3–16. [7]H. Berger, P. Beynon-Davies, The utility of rapid application development in large-scale, complex projects, Inf. Syst. J. 19(6) (2009) 549–570. [8]P. Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice, Cambridge University Press, 1977. [9]P. Bourdieu, The three forms of theoretical knowledge, Inf. Sur Sci. Soc. (Paris) 12(1) (1973) 53–80. [10]J.S. Brown, P. Duguid, Organizational learning and communities-of-practice: toward a unified view of working, learning, and innovating, Organ. Sci. 2(1) (1991) 40–57. [11]P.R. Carlile, A pragmatic view of knowledge and boundaries: boundary objects in new product development, Organ. Sci. 13(4) (2002) 442–455. [12]P. Clarke, R.V. O’Connor, The situational factors that affect the software development process: towards a comprehensive reference framework, Inf. Softw. Technol. 54(5) (2012) 433–447. [13]Collins CoBUILD, English Dictionary, 1989. [14]B. Curtis, H. Krasner, N. Iscoe, A field study of the software design process for large systems, Commun. ACM 31(11) (1988) 1268–1287 . Reactivity of Ashes: Effect of Porosity and Particle Size Reactivity of Ashes: Effect of Porosity and Particle Size Objective: Discuss the effect of porosity, particle size, shape and distribution on reactivity of ashes. Rice Husk Ash The particle size rice husk ash is around 5 micron to 95 micron with average particle size of 25 micron with high percentage of silica. The presence of silica in RHA has been known since 1938 and an extensive literature search has highlighted many uses of RHA as silica replacement. Two main industrial uses have been identified: as an insulator in the steel industry and as a poz- zolan in the cement industry. RHA is used by the steel industry in the production of high quality flat steel. Moreover, RHA is an excellent insulator, having low thermal conductivity, high melting point, low bulk density and high porosity. In particular, there are two areas for which RHA is used: in the manufacture of low cost building blocks, and in the production of high quality cement. The addition of RHA to cement has been found to enhance cement properties. In general, concrete made with Portland cement containing RHA has a higher compressive strength. RHA is finer than cement having very small particle size of 25 microns, so much so that it fills the interstices in between the cement in the aggregate. That is where the strength and density comes from. Incinerator Bottom Ash 1 This sample was imported from Portugal. Upon magnification, agglomerated and irregularly shaped amorphous particles were detected in the bottom ash samples associated with aggregates of polycrystalline, amorphous, and glassy material. The results show that the predominant elements in bottom ash samples were silicon (Si), aluminium (Al), iron (Fe), and calcium (Ca) as oxides, while the predominant elements in all spot points on surface texture of bottom ash. High silica and alumina content in bottom ash could make it a good sorbent while high CaO content is responsible for its alkaline character. It was found that the material was mainly amorphous in nature but also indicated the presence of crystalline phases such as feldspar, mullite, magnetite, and quartz. Bottom ash particles smaller than 11.2 mm accounts for approximately 80 % by mass. About 5 10 % bottom ash particles are between 0.1  µm and 100  µm. These particles are quite porous and look like volcanic lava. One of the m ost common uses for bottom ash is as structural fill. There is possibility of bottom ash being used as substitute/replacement of fine aggregate (sand). Its use in concrete becomes more significant and important in view of the fact that sources of natural sand as fine aggregates are getting depleted gradually, and it is of prime importance that substitute of sand be explored. The ash shows lower density, higher water absorption, and lower strength than natural gravel. They could be considered as average quality aggregates for use in concrete. When directly introduced in concrete, they led to swelling and cracking of specimens, due to the reaction between cement and metallic aluminium. Therefore, a treatment by sodium hydroxide was proposed to avoid such degradation, which made possible the partial replacement (up to 50%) of fine gravel in concrete without affecting the durability. Incinerator Bottom Ash 2 This sample was imported from Czech Republic. Hard Wood Ash Quantity and quality of wood ash may vary with many factors such as combustion temperature, species of wood and combustion technology used. Hence proper analysis of wood ash is important before its application in concrete. Wood ash chemical characteristics differ with species of wood but chiefly contains lime and silica. The size of wood ash varies from 45 micron to 75 micron. The particles of wood ash are little coarser than that of cement and have higher specific surface as compared to cement due to porous nature and irregular shape. Hard wood ash contains carbon (5-30%). Calcium (7-33%), potassium (3-4%), magnesium (1-2%), manganese (0.3-1.3%), phosphorus (0.3-1.4%) and sodium (0.2-0.5%) are the major constituents of wood ash. With increasing carbon content, density of wood ash decreases Incorporation of wood ash as partial replacement of cement adversely decreases the slump of concrete. Water absorption of concrete increases with the increase in wood ash percentage. There was mar ginal decrease in strength with increasing wood ash percentage in concrete, but increased with age due to increased pozzolanic reactions. Wood ash at replacement percentage up to 10% of the weight of binder can be successfully used as additive in place of cement to produce structure grade concrete. Replacement of cement by wood ash does not have negative impact on the chloride permeability. There is a significant decrease in the drying shrinkage on the incorporation of wood ash.

Views on Computationalism: Clark vs. Searle :: essays research papers

Views on Computationalism: Clark vs. Searle Computationalism: the view that computation, an abstract notion of materialism lacking semantics and real-world interaction, offers an explanatory basis for human comprehension. The main purpose of this paper is to discuss and compare different views regarding computationalism, and the arguments associated with these views. The two main arguments I feel are the strongest are proposed by Andy Clark, in â€Å"Mindware: Meat Machines†, and John Searle in â€Å"Minds, Brains, and Programs.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Andy Clark strongly argues for the theory that computers have the potential for being intelligent beings in his work â€Å"Mindware: Meat Machines.† The support Clark uses to defend his claims states the similar comparison of humans and machines using an array of symbols to perform functions. The main argument of his work can be interpreted as follows: p1. The brain is constructed like a computer, since both contain parts which enable them to function. p2. The brain, like a computer, uses symbols to make calculations and perform functions. p3. The brain contains mindware similarly as a computer contains software. c. Therefore, computers are capable of being intelligent beings.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I find, however, that Clark’s conclusion is false, and that the following considerations provide a convincing argument for the premises leading to this conclusion, starting with premise one: â€Å"the brain is constructed like a computer, since both contain parts which enable them to function.† This statement is plausible, yet questionable. Yes, the mind contains tissue, veins, and nerves etc. which enable it to function, the same way that a computer contains wires, chips, and gigabytes etc. which it needs to function. However, can it be possible to compare the two when humans devised these parts and the computer itself so that it can function? If both â€Å"machines†, as Clark believes, were constructed by the same being this comparison might be more credible. Clark might argue that humans were made just as computers were made so therefore it could be appropriate to categorize them together. I feel that this response would fail because it is uncertain where exactly humans were made and how, unless one relies on faith, whereas computers are constructed by humans in warehouses or factories.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  My second argument against Clark’s claims applies to premise two: â€Å"the brain, like a computer, uses symbols to make calculations and perform functions.† Before I state what I find is wrong with this claim, I should explain the example Clark uses to support this premise, which is from the work of Jerry Fodor:

Impact on the People of Nigeria by Muslims, French and British Essay

Africans have been migrating through out the continent, including Nigeria, long before there was even written record. Because of this, there has always been an extensive amount of inter-mingling between various ethnic groups, making it difficult to actually trace back who came from where. Aside from this amalgamation, there has been a huge impact on the peoples of Nigeria by outside forces. In particular, three major groups that had a major impact were Muslim merchants from across the Sahara, British slave traders and eventual colonizers, and the French and British Christian missionaries. The combination of these three groups has had both an economic and cultural impact on Nigeria that is still present today. External penetration of Nigeria started as early as the 9th century AD when Muslim merchants from western Sudan, Maghreb, Tripolitania and Egypt started traveling across the Sahara with camel caravans in search of trade. Over the course of the next six centuries, Islam became accepted widely in the north, especially among the Hausa and Fulani, and not only as a religion. It also imposed a central government, segregated the sexes, influenced language and script, and established a hierarchical class system that was not there beforehand. Islam did not spread south because of the dense tropical forest that divides Nigeria into north and south. This also caused the two regions to â€Å"develop† at different rates because while the south was still alien to Europeans, the north was expanding culturally and economically because of its deep involvement with the trans-Sahara trade routes. The peoples of the south remained untouched by Europeans until the 1470’s when Portuguese explorers, under the inspiration and guidance of Henry the Navigator, arrived and traded spirits, cloth, guns and gunpowder for slaves. The Portuguese did not really have much of a cultural effect on the indigenous people (besides the slowly diminishing population). This is because they rarely traveled farther than the coast, if they even left the ships. Eventually the British ships were dropping anchor along Nigeria’s coast after Britain realized the extent of the profits the Portuguese were making and what they could reap from slavery. By 1712 they had established a slave monopoly along the west coast. Chiefs and African slave traders brought slaves to shipside in exchange for Eu... ...t of Nigerians resorted to migration when fighting didn’t work. It is ironic how when one country tries to take over another in a forceful manner, it is met by some form of resistance but if the country introduces itself through trade it is accepted with open arms. The Muslims did not intend to rule over anyone. They were there to make deals and trade goods. Muslim conversion was gradual and voluntary and spanned over six centuries. There is little evidence about wars between Muslims and Nigerians. Also, many Nigerians are proud to be part of the Muslim culture in the north, even if they are from the south, because of its historical tradition, distinctive architecture, useful language, Islamic faith and because it is an alternative to white European culture. The British were the ones that forcefully took people’s land and family members. They were accepted at first, but they betrayed the trust of the people and exploited them for Britain’s gain for over 400 years. Many educated Nigerians today feel that if it weren’t for the slave trade and colonialism, they would be living in a much more modern and progressive country at this time. It is no wonder that they resent the British.

Reflective Essay: The Writing Process -- Reflective Essay

"There is no greater agony than bearing an untold story inside you." - - - Maya Angelou, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Throughout the semester I have had to write a number of essays using a variety of techniques. Before college, I would write assuming that the only reader, or audience, would be my teacher. Composition helped me realize the many steps that are involved in the writing process from free writing to making a final copy. In order to create a good paper you need organize your ideas. Also, I realize what needs to be in a essay and what doesn’t.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I have improved in my writing but organization has been my problem, and even though I’ve made a progress. I still believe I have not fully succeed on this area but I’m going to improve on it. The process of using multiple drafts has improved me to over look on my mistakes. Before I would never go back and have someone else to revise on my papers. The most valuable lesson I have learned about the writing process this semester is mostly editing and revising drafts to lead to a perfect final paper. Able to write on college level, I am going let other people revise my papers. Then I can improve myself as a writer.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  My favorite assignments was the rhetoric and advertising because it was something I have never done before. I found that describing the same scene in different circumstances was difficult because they all had a similar scene. I be...

Korean Traditional House: Grass Roofed House Essay

In Korea there was a traditional house called ‘Choga house’ which ‘Choga’ means grass roof and it had a lot of benefits for poor people. It is made of red clay so it was cool in summer and warm in winter. Also it was really easy and cheap to get those materials so many poor people used to make Choga house. The roof was made of grass so it was easy to get it, and it was good in both summer and winter because it protected hotness in summer and it protected people from cold air in winter. But it was easy to burn and people need to change their roof once a year. I have no idea what they have thought for Choga house in the past but I think it also looks beautiful. It harmonizes with nature. Nowadays they are gone but some Korean designer used Choga house’s outlook to modern buildings. In Choga house, there is Korean ancestors wisdom, Korean Traditional House: Grass Roofed House In Korea there was a traditional house called ‘Choga house’ which ‘Choga’ means grass roof and it had a lot of benefits for poor people. It is made of red clay so it was cool in summer and warm in winter. Also it was really easy and cheap to get those materials so many poor people used to make Choga house.The roof was made of grass so it was easy to get it, and it was good in both summer and winter because it protected hotness in summer and it protected people from cold air in winter. But it was easy to burn and people need to change their roof once a year. I have no idea what they have thought for Choga house in the past but I think it also looks beautiful. It harmonizes with nature. Nowadays they are gone but some Korean designer used Choga house’s outlook to modern buildings. In Choga house, there is Korean ancestors wisdom,| Choga, the Korean Traditional Grass – Roofed House In Korea there is a traditional dwelling called ‘Choga’ which means grass-roofed house that is comfortable to live in the whole year round. It is made of red clay so it is cool in summer and warm in winter. It is also easy and cheap to get materials for this kind of dwelling so many poor people used to make Choga houses.The roof is made of grass so it was readily available. It is good in both summer and winter because it regulates the hot temperature in summer while it protects people from the cold air in winter. But, the roof material easily catches fire so it needs to be changed once a year. The Choga house harmonizes with nature. Nowadays they are gone but some Korean designer use the principle of building a Choga house’s in designing modern buildings. In the Choga house lives the wisdom of Korean ancestors so it should not be forgotten.|

Hypermarket Impact on Small Retailer

ABSTRACT Kedai runcit or assorted defecates nominate been a standard indication of our ho exploitation estate landscape always since there were lodging estates. These mom-and-pop trading exertions deplete been selling to their environ residents everyday essentials such(prenominal)(prenominal) as groceries, fresh produce, poultry, toiletries, etc. Their commonsensical price and close distance have made them popular among residents of the lodgement estates in which they atomic add 18 located. Lately, though, their popularity has been on the deterioration receivable to rival from wholesale securities industrys or hypermarkets which stack offer the same items cheaper and conveniently on a lower floor one cover.Local and foreign-bred hypermarkets such as monsters, Tesco and crossing have been invading our towns, forged and sm on the whole, going the traditional miscellaneous brands fighting for their traffic. numerous of these sm all told-scale individually-owned shops have since closed their consummations permanently or moved them a little further emergeskirt of town, international from the hypermarket catchment. Just how serious is the carry on of these hypermarkets on the outgrowth of the assorted shops has so cold not been fully examined in Malaysia although m any another(prenominal) studies have been carried out elsewhere.Thus, this paper presents a mull that has been carried out by the authors to investigate how serious the carry on is in Johor Bahru. A sample of deuce-ace hypermarkets was elect for this arena. victimization GIS, we spatially showed the annual changes in the parsimoniousness of motley shop licenses issued by the local anaesthetic authority within the catchment of from for each one one hypermarket, triplet old age before as healthy as lead geezerhood subsequently the inaugural date of the hypermarket. Also using GIS, we corroborated the decline in the soma of mixed shops within the skirt hou se estates with the residing addresses of the surveyed customers of the hypermarkets.The results obtained confirm that the transaction of hypermarkets does contribute to the decline in the number of miscellaneous(prenominal) shops and the degree of the decline decreases radially outward from the location of the hypermarkets. The findings from this involve suggest that some rethinking needs to be done about the manner in which hypermarket licenses, or mixed shop licenses for that matter, are issued. Even our current policy of allowing a certain percentage of pertly living accommodations development to be set asunder for shoplots may also need to be reviewed.Keywords Hypermarkets, motley shops, GIS spatial analysis 1. foundation Kedai runcit or a sundry shop is any shop that sells groceries and other free-and-easy items directly to its customers in small measuring (Osman, 1988). Normally, sundry shops are owned by individuals or shared by some(prenominal) individuals and offer confine number of items and quantity. In Malaysia one can find sundry shops in al well-nigh every housing estates and villages and they normally have a limited cathment cranial orbit.A hypermarket, in contrast, is a big-scale retail caudex that offers a variety of goods and services all conveniently under one roof (Duncan, Hollander and Savitt, 1983). A hypermarket commands a wide catchment area and it is normally owned by big companies who have numerous branches of the hypermarkets in many places. Among the more-popular chains of hypermarket operating in Malaysia are the locally-owned Giant Hypermarkets, and foreign-owned Tesco Hypermarkets and Carrefour Hypermarkets.Like in any modern country, hypermarkets in Malaysia have been expanding their operation to meet the demand of current times for quality, convenience, product variety and long operation hours (Malaysian Ninth Plan, cc6). However, there are ever growing take on the proscribe disturbs of hypermarkets on the task of nearby nearness sundry shops (Johor Structure Plan 2002-2020, 2005). This is back up by Bennison & Davies (1980) and Seiders & Tigert (2000) whose study concluded that a hypermarket did have a negative impact on the growth of small sundry shops in the area.In spite of the same concern in Malaysia, there have been no study to investigate the spatial purpose of the impact. Thus, a study was set up by the authors to investigate the spatial design of the impact and also to find out the factors that attract customers to hypermakets, leaving their nearness sundry shops struggling for caper. 2. OBJECTIVES The objective of the study was to spatially investigate the impact of a hypermarket on the operation of the touch sundry shops.In inn to achieve the objectives the following tasks needed to be carried out 1) identifying the suitable samples of hypermarkets 2) identifying the market catchment of the hypermarkets 3) ingathering of data pertaining to the number of business licenses issued to sundry shop operators within the catchment areas trinity geezerhood before as well as common chord years afterwards the operation of the hypermarkets 4) identifying factors that influence the decisions by the customers to shop at these hypermarkets.The method used to conduct the study is discussed in details in the following section. 3. METHOD The first step of the study was to choose a number of hypermarkets as units of analysis. Among the criteria taken into consideration in choosing the hypermarkets were 1) the year they were opened for business to ensure that the chosen hypermarkets have been operating for at least(prenominal)(prenominal) three years 2) the distances between each other to avoid overlapping of the market catchments and 3) the types of goods sold at the hypermarkets so that they contact those sold at the neighborhood sundry shops.Of the total of about ten hypermarkets in the City of Johor Bahru, three hypermarkets met these criteria and were chosen for the study. The three hypermarkets were from a locallygrown hypermarket chain cognise as Giant Hypermarket that are located in Southern City (in Johor Bahru City Centre), in Plentong and in Skudai (10km outskirt of Johor Bahru) (Refer Figure 1. 0). These three hypermarkets served a number of residential areas, known in Malaysia as taman perumahan or housing estates, located between 0 20km contact them.The next step was the distribution of questionaire sets to 200 customers per hypermarket (100 during weekday and 100 during weekend) containing questions concerning their home addresses and the reasons for choosing to shop at the hypermarkets. Their home addresses were and then inputted into the city forge in GIS format to dertermine the extent of each hypermarkets cathment area. One way to nib the impact of a hypermarket on the neighborhood sundry shops is to actually count the number of sundry shops that are in business several years before and after the hypermar ket is in operation.This is difficult to conduct since the supervise would take as long as the number of years that we are provoke in investigating. One way to rush along the process is to actually study the records of the number of annual business licenses issued to sundry shops and render birth that each sundry shop that holds such license is actually operating a sundry shop. On this basis, the number of business licenses issued to sundry shops within three years before and after a hypermarket was in operation were obtained from the local authority (Johor Bahru Tengah municipal Council).The locations of the business premises of these licenses were then plot on the city map and then rasterised into a 50m grid format to give a density of sundry shop licenses per fifty square meters for each of the three years before and after the operation of the hypermarkets. The changes in the sundry shop density were then used to explain the impact of the hypermatkets on the business of the sundry shops. 2. shock absorber on Neighbourhood Sundry ShopsIf most of the customers that patronize these hypermarkets come from the surrounding housing estates as described previously, what is the impact on the sundry shops within those housing estates? The least impact would be slowing surmount of business for these neighborhood sundry shops enchantment the worst impact would be law of closure down of business. While business slowing can be investigated, this study but looked at the closing down of business by tracking the number of sundry shop licenses issued annualy by the local authority.Since the impact normally materializes a few years after the possible action of a hypermarket, records of licenses three years before and after the opening of the hypermarket were inventoried. Changes in the number of sundry shops were investigated by studying the changes in the density of sundry shop licenses for every 50m2 area surrounding each hypermarket. This is done spatially in GIS by rasterising the 50m2 area into grids and varying the ruse of the grids according to the number of licenses within the grids for each particular year. Figures 5. 0 7. show the annual changes in the density of licenses within the grids for all the three hypermarkets studied. In general, the figures show the change magnitude trend in the densities of sundry shops eve before the opening of these hypermarkets except for the Plentong Giant Hypermarket. The fall number of sundry shops surrounding the Southern City Hypermarket (Figure 5. 0) could be attributed to competition among themselves and the operation of another hypermarket chain at the very building occupied by the Giant Hypermarket before it took over the operation.Meanwhile the decreasing number of sundry shops surrounding the Skudai Hypermarket (Figure 7. 0) could be attributed to the opening of another Giant Hypermarket proficient 4km away the year before the Skudai Hypermarket opened, obscure from competition amo ng themselves. The number of sundry shops surrounding the Plentong Hypermarket (Figure 6. 0) on the other hand was on the increase prior to the opening of the hypermarket. investigating revealed that this was due to the opening of several new housing estates in the area which normally, as the case is in Malaysia, come with a number of shoplots.